Use of the Comma with Conjunctions and Other Connectives

When do you use a comma with conjunctions (such as mutta, että and vaikka) and other connective elements (such as siitä huolimatta, lisäksi and saati)? In this article, I focus on each of the subgroups of connective elements and what the guidelines say about using a comma with them.

NOTE: This article is part of a wider series that goes over the comma rules from different perspectives. You can find a list of the other parts here.

Table of Contents

Types of conjunctions and connective elements
Comma rules with coordinating conjunctions
Special note for mutta and vaan
Comma rules with subordinate conjunctions
Comma rules for double conjunctions
Comma rules for two conjunctions side by side
Comma rules for adverb + conjunction combinations
Disjunctive connective elements
Comma with postposition phrases
Miscellaneous

1. Types of conjunctions and connective elements

1.1. Conjunctions

We can divide conjunctions into groups based on several approaches.

Firstly, syntactically, conjunctions are usually divided into two groups: coordinating and subordinate conjunctions.

Coordinating conjunction: a conjunction that typically connects two main clauses. Coordinating conjunctions connect two clauses, words or phrases of equal importance. Common coordinating conjunctions in Finnish are: ja, sekä, sekä–että, -kä, eli, tai, joko–tai, vai, sillä, mutta, vaan (as well as the contracted conjunctions eikä and muttei).
Subordinate conjunction: a conjunction that typically connects a main clause to a subordinate clause. Common coordinating conjunctions in Finnish are: kun, kuin, kunnes, koska, että, jotta, jos, mikäli, vaikka, ennen kuin, ikään kuin, niin kuin (as well as the contracted conjunctions jollei, vaikkei, ettei, jottei).

Secondly, we can also divide conjunctions into groups based on their meaning. There are, for example, conjunctions that express contrast, causality, or conditions.

1.2. Postposition phrases, particles and adverbs

While I originally intended to only talk about conjunctions in this article, it soon became apparent that it makes sense to also add other kinds of connective elements.

Postposition phrases: A postposition is a word placed behind the noun it governs. In Finnish, they usually require that noun to be inflected in the genitive case. You can read more about typical postpositions (such as takana, edessä and kanssa) here. I’ve included postposition phrases that are used to connect sentences and parts of sentences on this page. This includes phrases such as sen vuoksi (therefore), sen lisäksi (in addition) and sen tähden (consequently).
Adverbs: Adverbs typically modify a verb; adding information about the manner, place, time or frequency in which something is done. Some adverbs function much like conjunctions. For example, päinvastoin (on the contrary) opposes one statement with another.
Conjunction chains: I’ve also added some chains of words that contain a conjunction. This includes, for example samalla kun (at the same time as, while), mutta jos (but if) and siten että (in such a way as to). I will be covering these in more detail in another article, because they’re a pretty neat way to improve the way you form sentences.

2. Comma rules with coordinating conjunctions

A coordinating conjunction is a conjunction that typically connects two main clauses. Coordinating conjunctions connect two clauses, words or phrases of equal importance. Common coordinating conjunctions in Finnish are: ja, sekä, sekä–että, -kä, eli, tai, joko–tai, vai, sillä, mutta, vaan (as well as the contracted conjunctions eikä and muttei).

Coordinating conjunctions will have a comma when the main clauses are completely independent from one another, but no comma if they have a shared element. This is something many people get wrong.

Comma	English	Explanation
Yes	Minä luen ääneen, ja sinä kirjoitat sanat ylös.	No shared element
No	Minä luen ääneen ja kirjoitan sen jälkeen sanat.	Shared subject
Yes	Luenko tämän ääneen, vai haluatko itse lukea sen?	No shared element
No	Luenko tämän ääneen vai jätänkö lukematta?	Shared subject
Yes	Minä luen ääneen, mutta sinä tuijotat ulos ikkunasta.	No shared element
No	Minä luen ääneen mutta ymmärrän tosi vähän siitä.	Shared subject
Yes	Minä luen ääneen, mutta se ei auttanut muistamaan.	No shared element
No	Olen lukenut kirjan mutten voi sitä suositella.	Shared subject
Yes	Minä en lue tätä ääneen, vaan sinä luet sen ihan itse.	No shared element
No	Minä en lue tätä ääneen vaan luen ihan hiljaa.	Shared subject
Yes	En lue, etkä voi pakottaa minua siihen!	No shared element
No	En lue enkä kirjoita mitään.	Shared subject
Yes	Minä voin tehdä sen yksin, tai sinä voit halutessasi auttaa.	No shared element
No	Minä voin tehdä sen yksin tai voin pyytää apua.	Shared subject

3. Special note for mutta and vaan

Note how I put mutta and vaan in the table above, with the main rule applied to them. It’s important to note, however, that many Finns have been taught in school that you should always place a comma before the conjunctions mutta and vaan.

Nowadays, mutta and vaan are considered to have the same rules as other coordinating conjunctions. That is, if these sentences have two clauses that have a shared element, you will not use a comma. However, due to what’s been taught in the past, this rule isn’t very strict, so you can add a comma if you want to.

Examples

Ari ei halunnut valittaa vaan __ hyväksyi asian mukisematta.
- Sentence: [main clause] + [incomplete main clause]
- Shared element: Ari (has been left out of the second main clause)
- Translation: Ari didn’t want to complain, but rather accepted the matter without protest.
- Old rule: add comma – New rule: no comma → both accepted
Ari halusi valittaa mutta __ ei uskonut sen auttavan.
- Sentence: [main clause] + [incomplete main clause]
- Shared element: Ari (has been left out of the second main clause)
- Translation: Ari wanted to complain but didn’t believe it would help.
- Old rule: add comma – New rule: no comma → both accepted

Examples where a comma IS necessary

Both the old rule and the new guideline will require a comma with some sentences which are joined by the conjunction mutta or vaan. This is the case when both sentences have their own subject (so basically just the guideline from section 1).

Ari ei valehdellut, vaan hänen vaimonsa oli syypää tähän.
- Sentence: [main clause] + [main clause]
- Shared element: no shared element, both sentences have their own subject.
- Translation: Ari didn’t lie, but rather his wife was to blame for this. (hard to translate this one)
- Rule: add comma
Ari ei valehdellut, mutta silti kaikki väittivät hänen valehdelleen.
- Sentence: [main clause] + [main clause]
- Shared element: no shared element, both sentences have their own subject.
- Translation: Ari didn’t lie but everyone still claimed she did.
- Rule: add comma

4. Comma rules with subordinate conjunctions

A subordinate conjunction is a conjunction that connects a main clause with a subordinate clause. Common coordinating conjunctions in Finnish are: jos, kun, koska, vaikka, jotta and että.

The default rule for subordinate conjunctions (alistuskonjunktio) is to always place a comma. This is the case regardless of the order the sentences appear in (see the first two “kun” sentences in the table below for an example of this).

Comma	English	Explanation
Yes	Kun avasin oven, pelästyin kauheasti.	When I opened the door, I got really scared.
Yes	Pelästyin kauheasti, kun avasin oven.	I got terribly scared when I opened the door.
Yes	Odotin, kunnes Ari tuli.	I waited until Ari came.
Yes	En tule, koska en ehdi.	I won’t come because I don’t have the time.
Yes	Jään kotiin, sillä olen sairas.	I will stay at home because I’m sick.
Yes	En tullut, kun olin niin väsynyt.	I didn’t come ’cause I was so tired.
Yes	Jos et saavu ajoissa, en päästä sinua sisään.	If you don’t arrive on time, I won’t let you in.
Yes	Jos et saavu ajoissa, niin et pääse sisään.	If you don’t arrive on time, then you won’t get in.
Yes	En muuta, ellei ole ihan pakko.	I won’t move if it is not absolutely necessary.
Yes	En muuta, jollei ole ihan pakko.	I won’t move if it is not absolutely necessary.
Yes	Mikäli tilaat nyt, toimitus on ilmainen	Provided you order now, shipping is free.
Yes	Kunhan tilaat heti, saat alennusta.	As long as you order now, you get a discount.
Yes	Ari ei tullut, vaikka odotimme häntä.	Ari didn’t come even though we waited for him.
Yes	Vastasin, vaikken tiennyt vastausta.	I answered even though I did not know the answer.
Yes	Nuku nyt, jotta jaksat huomenna keskittyä.	Sleep now so you can focus tomorrow.
Yes	Nuku nyt, että jaksat huomenna keskittyä.	Sleep now so you can focus tomorrow.
Yes	Puhuin hiljaa, jottei vauva heräisi.	I spoke quietly so as not to wake the baby.
Yes	Puhuin hiljaa, ettei vauva heräisi.	I spoke quietly so as not to wake the baby.
Yes	Ari ei vastaa, joten soitan Sarille.	Ari doesn’t answer, so I will call Sari.

5. Comma rules for double conjunctions

Double conjunctions consist of two conjunctions working together. Some will require a comma, while others won’t.

Comma: mitä-sitä, milloin–milloin, yhtäältä–toisaalta, toisinaan-toisinaan, toiset-toiset
No comma: sekä-että, joko-tai, paitsi-myös, ei-eikä, ei vain-vaan myös

Comma	Finnish	English
Yes	Mitä enemmän näen, sitä vähemmän uskon.	The more I see, the less I believe.
Yes	Mitä nopeammin kiiruhtaa, sitä hitaammin etenee.	The faster you rush, the slower you progress.
Yes	Ari tekee milloin hyviä, milloin huonoja päätöksiä.	Ari makes sometimes good and sometimes bad decisions.
Yes	Toisaalta Ari on kiltti, toisaalta hän on laiska.	On the one hand, Ari is kind, on the other hand, he is lazy.
Yes	Yhtäältä haluan muutosta, toisaalta pelkään sitä.	On the one hand, I want change, on the other hand, I fear it.
Yes	Toisinaan sataa, toisinaan paistaa aurinko.	Sometimes it rains, sometimes the sun shines.
Yes	Toiset olivat puolesta, toiset vastaan.	Some were for it, others against it.
No	Ari sekä kirjoittaa että puhuu kiinaa sujuvasti.	Ari both writes and speaks Chinese fluently.
No	Sekä Ari että Sari tulivat juhliin.	Both Ari and Sari came to the party.
No	Peliä voi pelata joko yksin tai yhdessä.	The game can be played either alone or together.
No	Olet joko hullu tai valehtelija.	You’re either crazy or a liar.
No	Ari ei soita pianoa eikä kitaraa.	Ari does not play the piano nor the guitar.
No	En mieti vain tätä päivää vaan myös huomista.	I’m not just thinking about today, but also about tomorrow.
No	Niin lapset kuin aikuisetkin nauttivat esityksestä.	Both the children and the adults enjoyed the performance.

6. Comma rules for two conjunctions side by side

Certain conjunctions can be placed side by side. These aren’t considered a double conjunction (see section xxx) because they appear right next to one another like a chain. The guidelines for this state that you only use one comma, which is placed in front of both conjunctions.

Finnish	English
Luulen, että jos voittaisin lotossa, masentuisin.	I think that if I won the lottery, I would get depressed.
Lähdin myöhään, ja kun saavuin, oli jo pimeää.	I left late, and when I arrived, it was already dark.
Lähdin aikaisin, mutta kun saavuin, oli jo pimeää.	I left early, but when I arrived, it was already dark.
Tiedän, että kun tarvitsen apua, voin soittaa sinulle.	I know that when I need help, I can call you.
Tajusin, että vaikka pidän työstäni, haluan irtisanoutua.	I realized that even though I like my job, I want to quit.
Pelataan, mutta jos huijaat, en jatka enää.	Let’s play, but if you cheat, I won’t continue anymore.
Olen ystäväsi, ja jos haluat, voin auttaa sinua.	I’m your friend, and if you want, I can help you.
Olen ystäväsi, ja vaikka suuttuisinkin, en jätä sinua.	I’m your friend, and even if I get angry, I won’t leave you.
Autan sinua, ja jos pyydät kauniisti, teen sen ilmaiseksi.	I’ll help you, and if you ask nicely, I’ll do it for free.
Tästä ei puhuta, paitsi että tänään puhutaankin.	This is not talked about, except that today we do talk about it.
Osa heistä haluaa, kun taas osa ei vaivaudu.	Some of them want to, while some don’t bother.
Tulen illalla, paitsi jos sataa.	I’ll come in the evening, unless (except if) it rains.

7. Comma rules for adverb + conjunction combinations

There are some phrases where a conjunction is preceded by an adverb. In these cases, it’s much less clear where the border of the two clauses goes. For these, it’s usually considered okay to either place a comma or leave it out completely.

7.1. Guidelines allow for both adding a comma and leaving it out

Examples:

Aina kun (always when)
- Virheitä sattuu aina kun suuri joukko ihmisiä tekee yhteistyötä.
- Virheitä sattuu aina, kun suuri joukko ihmisiä tekee yhteistyötä.
- Translation: Mistakes always happen when a large group of people collaborate.
Silloin kun (at such a time when)
- Oletko paikalla silloin kun tarvitsen sinua?
- Oletko paikalla silloin, kun tarvitsen sinua?
- Translation: Are you there when I need you?
Sitten kun (then when)
- Tulen auttamaan sinua sitten kun olet oikeasti olet avun tarpeessa.
- Tulen auttamaan sinua sitten, kun olet oikeasti olet avun tarpeessa.
- Translation: I will help you (then) when you really need help.
Samalla kun (at the same time when)
- Mietin omia asioitani samalla kun naapuri valittaa pysäköidyistä autoista.
- Mietin omia asioitani samalla, kun naapuri valittaa pysäköidyistä autoista.
- Mietin omia asioitani, samalla kun naapuri valittaa pysäköidyistä autoista.
- Translation: I’m thinking of my own things while my neighbor complains about the parked cars.

7.2. The comma changes the meaning of the sentence

Note, however, that the placement of the comma with “niin että” changes the meaning of the sentence!

Examples:

Close the window so it doesn’t rattle.
- Sulje ikkuna, niin ettei se kolise
  – Translation: Close the window so it doesn’t rattle.
  – Meaning: This option describes the consequence of the action.
- Sulje ikkuna niin, ettei se kolise
  – Translation: Close the window in such a way that it doesn’t rattle.
  – Meaning: This option describes the manner in which the action is done.
He spoke so that everyone heard.
- Hän puhui, niin että kaikki kuulivat.
  – Translation: He spoke so that everyone heard.
  – Meaning: This option describes the consequence of the action.
- Hän puhui niin, että kaikki kuulivat.
  – Translation: He spoke in such a way that everyone heard.
  – Meaning: This option describes the manner in which the action is done.

8. Disjunctive connective elements

Conjunctions typically connect two clauses within a sentence to one another. However, some conjunctions and connective elements commonly appear in a clause placed after the initial sentence. Some are exclusively used that way, while others can be both sentence-initial and included in a multi-sentence clause. Examples of these types of conjunctive adverbs in English are: however, therefore, nevertheless and moreover.

Examples:

Sitä paitsi: besides, in any case, moreover
1. At the start of a new sentence:
  – Sitä paitsi olen vanhempi kuin sinä.
  – Translation: Besides, I’m older than you.
2. In the middle of a sentence:
  – Suihkussa käyminen on sitä paitsi tosi tylsää. → No comma!
  – Translation: Besides, taking a shower is really boring.
3. Combined with a conjunction:
  – Ari on haluton lähtemään mukaan, ja sitä paitsi hän on sairas. → Comma for clarity’s sake
  – Translation: Ari is reluctant to go along, and besides, he’s sick.

Silti: even so, still, nonetheless
1. At the start of a new sentence:
  – Silti he eivät olleet varmoja asiasta.
  – Translation: Even so, they weren’t sure about the issue.
2. In the middle of a sentence:
  – Ari oli sairas. Hän päätti silti mennä töihin. → No comma!
  – Translation: Ari was sick. Even so, he decided to go to work.
3. Combined with a conjunction:
  – Nukun tosi hyvin, mutta silti minua väsyttää joka aamu. → Comma in front of conjunction chain
  – Translation: I sleep really well, but even so I’m still tired every morning.
Toisaalta: on the other hand, at the same time
1. At the start of a new sentence:
  – Toisaalta se voi olla hyväkin asia.
  – Translation: On the other hand, that can even be a good thing.
2. In the middle of a sentence:
  – Näin on toisaalta aina ennenkin toimittu. → No comma!
  – Translation: On the other hand, this is how it has always been done before.
3. Combined with a conjunction:
  – Se on kallista, mutta toisaalta laatu on erinomainen. → Comma in front of conjunction chain
  – Translation: It’s expensive, but on the other hand, the quality is excellent.

#	Finnish	English
1	Sitä paitsi olen vanhempi kuin sinä.	Besides, I’m older than you.
2	Olen sitä paitsi vanhempi kuin sinä.	Besides, I’m older than you.
3	Olen vanhempi, ja sitä paitsi en tarvitse lupaasi.	I’m older, and besides, I don’t need permission.
1	Ari oli sairas. Silti hän päätti mennä töihin.	Ari was sick. Still, he decided to work.
2	Ari oli sairas. Hän päätti silti mennä töihin.	Ari was sick. Still, he decided to work.
3	Ari oli sairas, mutta silti hän päätti mennä töihin.	Ari was sick, but he still decided to work.
1	En tiennyt. Siitä huolimatta yritin auttaa.	I didn’t know. Nevertheless, I tried to help.
2	En tiennyt. Yritin auttaa siitä huolimatta.	I didn’t know. I tried to help anyway.
3	En tiennyt mutta yritin auttaa siitä huolimatta.	I didn’t know, but I tried to help anyway.
1	Toisaalta virheistä voi oppia.	On the other hand, you can learn from mistakes.
2	Virheistä voi toisaalta oppia.	On the other hand, you can learn from mistakes.
3	Hävetti, mutta toisaalta kaikki tekevät virheitä.	I was ashamed, but then again, everyone makes mistakes.
1	Lisäksi minulta kysyttiin ammattiani.	Additionally, they asked my profession
2	Osaan sen lisäksi myös soittaa huilua.	In addition to that, I can also play the flute.
2	Arin lisäksi myös Sari auttoi.	In addition to Ari, Sari also helped.
2	Olen lisäksi opiskellut kemiaa ja biologiaa.	In addition, I have studied chemistry and biology.
3	Tanssin mielelläni, ja lisäksi pelaan golfia.	I like to dance, and I also play golf.
1	Siten on tärkeää löytää yhteinen tavoite.	Thus, it is important to find a common goal.
2	Ensimmäinen väite on siten hylättävä.	The first argument must therefore be rejected.
3	Hymyile, koska siten syntyy luottamusta.	Smile, because that’s how trust is formed.
1	Opiskelin kunnolla. Siksi tentti tuntui helpolta.	I studied hard. That’s why the exam felt easy.
2	Opiskelin kunnolla. Ehkä se tuntui siksi helpolta.	I studied hard. Maybe that’s why it felt easy.
3	Auto hajosi, ja siksi jouduimme kävelemään.	The car broke down, and that’s why we had to walk.

9. Comma with postposition phrases

Postpositional connective phrases contain a postposition, generally combined with sen or tämän (the genitive form of se and tämä). It’s very common for these postposition phrases to be placed at the very beginning of a clause, where it refers back to the previous statement. They can also be part of this previous sentence. When this is the case, they’re usually separated from the first section with a comma. Another option is to have a comma and the word ja.

Sen vuoksi: therefore, consequently, that’s why, thus, so
- At the start of a new sentence:
  – Päätös viivästyi. Sen/Tämän vuoksi aikataulu muuttui.
  – Translation: The decision was delayed. That/This is why the schedule changed.
  – More examples of this are marked with #1 in the table below.
- Combined with a conjunction:
  – Päätös viivästyi, ja sen vuoksi aikataulu muuttui. → Comma in front of conjunction chain
  – Translation: The decision was delayed, and therefore the schedule changed.
  – More examples of this are marked with #2 in the table below.
- Part of the initial phrase, after a comma:
  – Päätös viivästyi, sen vuoksi aikataulu muuttui.
  – Translation: The decision was delayed, so the schedule changed.
  – Note: While this is definitely used, guidelines will usually suggest you use either of the two previous options to combine a postposition phrase with a previous statement.

#	Finnish	English
1	Sen tähden me juhlimme tätä päivää vuosittain.	That is why we celebrate this day every year.
1	Ari oli ystävällinen. Sen ansiosta päivämme parani.	Ari was kind. Thanks to that, our day got better.
1	Sen johdosta otettiin käyttöön turvallisuustoimet.	As a result, security measures were implemented.
1	Myrsky alkoi viideltä. Sitä ennen oli aurinkoista.	The storm started at 5:00. Before that it was sunny.
1	Unohdin avaimeni. Sen takia en päässyt sisään.	I forgot my key. That’s why I couldn’t get in.
1	Sade yltyi. Sen seurauksena tiet tulvivat.	The rain intensified. As a result, the roads flooded.
2	Unohdin avaimeni, ja sen takia en päässyt sisään.	I forgot my key, and that’s why I couldn’t get in.
2	Sairastuin, ja siitä johtuen kokous peruttiin.	I got sick and, due to that, the meeting was cancelled.
2	Myrsky alkoi viideltä, mutta sitä ennen oli poutaa.	The storm started at five, but before that, it was fair weather.
2	Sade yltyi, ja sen seurauksena tiet tulvivat.	The rain intensified and, as a result, the roads flooded.

10. Miscellaneous

In the miscellaneous section, I’m just listing some connective elements which don’t fit neatly in any of the previous sections.

Finnish	English
Kello on neljä, on siis aika lähteä.	It’s four o’clock, so it’s time to leave.
Kello on neljä. On siis aika lähteä.	It’s four o’clock. Thus, it’s time to leave.
Ajattelen, siis olen.	I think, therefore I am.
Minulla on huono olo. Siksi en tule kouluun.	I feel unwell. That’s why I’m not coming to school.
Minulla on huono olo, siksi en tule kouluun.	I feel unwell, that’s why I’m not coming to school.
En tule kouluun siksi, että minulla on huono olo.	I’m not coming to school because I feel unwell.
Lähdetään jo, muuten myöhästymme.	Let’s go already, otherwise we’ll be late.
Ja niin minusta tuli miljonääri.	And that is how I became a millionaire.
Alkoi sataa. Niinpä siirryimme sisätiloihin.	It started to rain. Thus, we moved indoors.
Sytytä valot, muutoin on liian pimeää.	Turn on the lights, otherwise it’s too dark.
Moni vastusti. Ari puolestaan ei välittänyt.	Many objected. Ari, for his part, didn’t care.
Tavoitteena on päinvastoin kasvattaa myyntiä.	The goal is, on the contrary, to increase sales.
Nämä ovat konjunktioita eli sidesanoja.	These are conjunctions, ie. connecting words.
Elikkä te molemmat tiesitte ajan ja paikan.	So, you both knew the time and place.
Pikemminkin luulen, että kaikki johtuu Arista.	Rather, I think it’s all because of Ari.
Se oli pikemminkin sattumaa kuin suunnitelmaa.	It was a coincidence rather than a plan.
Kaikki on kuitenkin ollut sen arvoista.	Nevertheless, it has all been worth it.
Sinun ei tarvitse kutsua Aria. Hän ei kuitenkaan tule.	You don’t have to invite Ari. He will not come anyway.
He saisivat sen tietää kumminkin.	They would have found out anyway.
En muista tarkkaa hintaa, mutta se oli kummiskin halpa.	I don’t remember the exact price, but it was cheap anyways.
Ei satanut kumminkaan, vaikka niin ennustettiin.	It did not rain after all, even though it was predicted to.

Four special mentions still here, where there is some variation regarding comma usage:

Toisaalta: Finnish guidelines have discouraged using a comma in the past, but the guidelines have gotten less strict. As such, adding a comma is possible, though considered largely unnecessary. I’m putting the comma in brackets in my example below.
Kuin: Commas are unnecessary with kuin. However, in addition to being an inherent, fully integrated part of a sentence (#2a), the phrase behind kuin can be seen as a little addition (#2a). When this is the case (most commonly with ikään kuin), a comma is acceptable though largely unnecessary.
Saati: Normally, you won’t use a comma with saati because the element before the word and the one after are usually similar parallel expressions (#3a). However, a comma can be used when the phrase after saati is presented as an emphatic addition (#3b).
Kuten: The meaning of kuten will direct us towards using a comma or not. When kuten means “like” in a comparative sense (#4a), you don’t need a comma. When you’re giving examples (#4b), the guidelines instruct you to use a comma. If you put the example in the middle of the main sentence (#4c), you’ll add a comma on either side.

#	Finnish	English
1	Toisaalta(,) tämä ei välttämättä ole huono asia.	On the other hand, this is not necessarily a bad thing.
2a	Olet kaunis kuin lempeä kevättuuli.	You are beautiful like a gentle spring breeze.
2a	Ari hymyili ikään kuin kaikki olisi kunnossa.	Ari smiled as if everything was okay.
2b	Huoneessa oli hiljaista, ikään kuin aika olisi pysähtynyt.	It was quiet in the room, as if time had stopped.
3a	Ari ei tervehtinyt saati pyytänyt anteeksi.	Ari didn’t greet, let alone apologize.
3a	Vamma ei ollut vakava saati hengenvaarallinen.	The injury wasn’t serious, let alone life-threatening.
3b	Meillä ei ollut rahaa ostaa ruokaa, saati lahjojakaan.	We didn’t have money to buy food, let alone gifts.
4a	Teen sitten kaiken yksin kuten aina.	I’ll do everything alone then, like always.
4b	Meillä on työkaluja, kuten vasara, saha ja pora.	We have tools, such as a hammer, a saw, and a drill.
4c	Jotkut heistä, kuten Ari, saapuivat myöhässä.	Some of them, like Ari, arrived late.